Three recent situations inspired me to look at Dominion more critically—particularly, how one learns, teaches, and conceptualizes the game.
First, one of my game design students wrote a critical analysis of Dominion, and a significant portion of her analysis was based on the opinion that the rulebook was unclear. Specifically, she and her opponent were unable to determine when they were to discard their cards and draw new ones. I was surprised at this, in part because I had a student last year who upheld the same rulebook as a pillar of clarity. It may be worth noting that last year's student self-identifies as a "gamer," whereas this year's student had never heard of Dominion prior to taking my course. In any case, this was not the result I expected.
Second, I was recently with a group of friends who were teaching Dominion to a new player. They began by explaining actions and the chaining of actions and the strategic importance of this tactic, but before they had even taken any cards out of the box. This struck me as a particularly awkward way to introduce the game, since concepts such as "you're building your own deck" were not yet discussed, and it clearly was not resonating with the new player. In fact, his questions revealed that despite several minutes of accurate rule explanation, he had not built a coherent mental model of the game. This suggests to me that it wasn't a problem of accuracy, but of scaffolding—that is, giving the right information at the right time for the learner to advance.
Third, I was retelling the stories above to my lovely wife, and I explained that I thought it was important to focus on core gameplay when teaching a game. I justified that you cannot make sense out of peripheral game design elements without understanding the core, and therefore you should teach games from the core outward. She pointed out to me that sometimes she gets confused when I explain games this way because I don't give enough "big picture." Touché.
This got me thinking about the relationship between core gameplay and learning, and more specifically, how the dependencies among game concepts might reveal effective means for teaching the game. While many designers talk about "core gameplay," there is not consensus on where one draws the line around what is "core" and what is not. I decided to try mapping out the concepts required to play a game of Dominion as well as the dependencies among them, and this is what I came up with:
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| Concept dependency graph for Dominion. |
The graph was drawn using dot, part of the graphviz project. Dot generates layered graphs (that is, each node is in a discrete layer) and follows automatic graph drawing heuristics such as minimizing crossings, minimizing edge length, and maintaining aspect ratio. A quick look at the graph shows a potential "core" of the game emerging from the atomic concept "Each player has their own cards."
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| Concept dependency graph, detail of potential "core" |
The concept dependency graph has three atomic concepts: each player has their own cards; there are stacks of cards in the center of the table; and there is a trash pile. Of these, the last is almost certainly not part of the core gameplay: it's an design element that permits a small number of kingdom cards to permanently remove cards from a game. Like the numerous Dominion expansion, it is a design element that permits the introduction of more action variations. It is interesting that the computer-optimized drawing of this graph put the trash pile atomic concept on the periphery of the drawing, where as the fact that there are stacks of cards ends up "wrapped" within other dependencies.
Choosing only the ten basic kingdom cards allowed me to ignore Curse cards in my concept dependency graph. However, Moat is included in this set, and it required adding several concepts and dependencies. Without Moat, it doesn't matter that Militia is an Attack card, and so that concept could be elided. Moat is a Reaction, and so that requires an explanation. Moat is also the only card in the set that has two different actions on it, from which the player must choose one; in all other cases, the player does everything on the card when it is played. This provides some justification for not including Moat as a beginner card, despite its gameplay utility in foiling Militia. It would be an interesting study to compare beginners' ability to learn the game with and without Moat to see if there was any significant difference.
It is noteworthy that the "ABC" concepts—that your turn comprises Action, Buy, and Cleanup—are relatively deep in the graph. You cannot really make sense of ABC unless you know what Action, Buy, and Cleanup mean. However, my experience shows that it still provides a memorable peg on which to hang your hat when teaching the game. That is, I propose that the mnemonic is there because these are not atomic concepts. Similarly, the atomic concepts manifest in directly observable configurations: without knowing anything about how the game is played, one can see that players have their own cards (based on players' handling them and placing them in easy reach), you can see stacks on the table, and there is a single "Trash" card among these stacks.
It is noteworthy that the "ABC" concepts—that your turn comprises Action, Buy, and Cleanup—are relatively deep in the graph. You cannot really make sense of ABC unless you know what Action, Buy, and Cleanup mean. However, my experience shows that it still provides a memorable peg on which to hang your hat when teaching the game. That is, I propose that the mnemonic is there because these are not atomic concepts. Similarly, the atomic concepts manifest in directly observable configurations: without knowing anything about how the game is played, one can see that players have their own cards (based on players' handling them and placing them in easy reach), you can see stacks on the table, and there is a single "Trash" card among these stacks.
I knew I wanted a hierarchical drawing of the graph because I was looking explicitly for layers of concepts. I was curious, however, as to whether a force-directed drawing would yield any further insight. The result of running the graph through neato is given below. There's no new insight to be had from this visualization, at least not as relates to finding a potential core gameplay.
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| Force-directed drawing of the concept dependency graph |
This project has made me wonder whether other graph formalisms might reveal new insights into game design. A propositional network, for example, permits separate reasoning about cards and the having of cards. I did a bit of work with SNePS in graduate school, and it might be a useful tool to deploy here. I know that Machinations presents a formal language for representing game design elements, but I know relatively little about it; it may provide some insight into the learnability of games and core gameplay as well. I am curious to hear from anyone who has tried either tool toward these ends.
If you find any other uses for this formalism in studying game design and learning, or if you know of any related work in the literature, please leave a note in the comments. Thanks for reading!
